Theories Of Learning.

Operant Conditioning. 

• Based around the idea of that behaviour could be modified or conditioned if it was directed towards a stimulus. 
• Involves a the formation and strengthening of stimulus response bonds.

How it works in practice:

• A stimulus must be presented to the performer in an environment that is the same as a sporting situation, for example if a low, hard drive in squash was the motor programme being learnt, a marker would be placed in between the back line of the service box and the back wall- this would be their target. The coach would then feed the ball of the front wall at a medium height, for the learner to then return. 

In this example the ball is the stimulus and by the coach feeding the ball at the perfect height for the specific shot to played, as well as putting a target down on court, a structured environment is being created. 

 

• Trial and error would be used in order to find the correct back swing, follow through and position in to create a successful shot. However before this is found, several responses will be tried as a reaction to the feed. When the performer finds that one technique is unsuccessful then another one will be tried which is showing the behaviour of the performer being modified.

• When the learner responds to the stimulus with a correct response, positive reinforcement will take  place;this could be anything as simple as the coach telling them ‘well done’, but it tells the performer that their response was correct. As a result of the positive reinforcement, the performer now knows that they should carry on following the same technique that was successful, as they repeat it the correct response becomes successful.
• Poor technique will not be rewarded so any incorrect bonds will be weakened.
• The desired stimulus response bond becomes strengthened so becomes more and more dominant.

 

Cognitive theory of learning

• Learning is best achieved by presenting the skill as a whole in a realistic situation in order for the performer to think about and understand the whole situation.

The key objective in observational learning is to work out the solution to the problem (insight learning). This is done by the use of three things:

perception- the interpretation of the various pieces of information.

past experiences- using what you have previously learnt/ experienced in order to solve the current problem. 

Problem solving- this can be done through the use of trial and error.

• Reminiscence and mental rehearsal is used during the thought process occurring between receiving the stimulus and producing a response. (intervening variables)

Practical example:

In netball, the performer would see where about their opponents, team mates are and who they are then understanding what kind of pass needs to be done (perception). Schema would then be used to select a generalised motor programme then made specific to the environment (insight learning and intervening variables).

Observational Learning

• copying the behaviours of others
• most likely to be copied of a role model of the same gender or similar ageblob:https%3A//vine.co/3653bd1e-efb0-49ad-869f-53f328df903d

The four factors that need to be considered when watching a demonstration of a skill, there are:

• Attention- how much the performer focuses on the demonstration, the more the learner pays attention then the more they should retain.
• Retention- the image must be retained by the learner if it is to be copied successfully.
• Motor Reproduction- the learner must have the physical ability to copy and replicate the skill.

Motivation- must have the drive to match the performance. External reinforcement will increase the motivation to replicate it.

 

Reinforcement  : ‘the process that causes a response or behaviour to reoccur by forming and strengthening the stimulus response learning bond’

Positive reinforcement: after a successful response by the learner the coach will show approval. This could be in the form of praise and as an intangible reward such a s the coach saying ‘well done’. It could also be in the form of a satisfier like a certificate which is a tangible reward.

Negative reinforcement: involves withdrawing a negative stimulus like disaproval when a poor response is given by a learner. Once a positive response is given then the negative stimulus is removed so the incorrect S-R bond is weakened but the positive one is strengthened. An example is when a diver who is a cognitive learner experiences pain when they enter the water so this tells them that their response was poor.When they do a good dive then there will be no pain when entering the water.

Punishment:

• Punishment is as you’d imagen it- something unpleasant! Once the unpleasant stimulus is given, it should prevent the performer from making the response occur again.
• The key term for punishment is noxious stimulus.
• A noxious stimulus is designed to break an undesired learning bond. For example in football a player could be sent off for making a deliberate unfair tackle, this would then teach they player not to carry out the same response again.

 

Thorndike’s Laws

The psychologist, Thorndike, believed that connecting stimulus response bonds was the most effective way in which to learn so he applied three rules to operant conditioning.These three rules were:

• The Law Of Effect: if behaviour is reinforced then the learning bond is strengthened. ( This relates back to the use of positive reinforcement)
• The Law Of Exercise: a S-R bond will be strengthened by practice and repeated reinforcement. ( a squash player practising their serve over and over again to strengthen the S-R bond.)
• The Law Of Readiness: the learn must be physically and mentally capable of performing the skill. (this can relate to the theory of observational learning)

 

MOTIVATION & AROUSAL

Motivation is the drive to learn and perform well.

Arousal is the degree of physiological and psychological readiness or activation.

DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY

 

The desire to learn a new skill is what motivates you to do it- this could be wanting to improve your overall performance.

The drive to satisfy the need to learn the skill is about what you’re actually going to do, for example it could be having extra coaching sessions.

Impact on a balanced, healthy, active lifestyle:

• the first two stages increases participation in BAHL
• the last stage could potentially decrease participation in BAHL as motivation is lost as you feel as sense of completion or become bored of the skill as there is no challenging aspect any more.

 

DRIVE  THEORY

• Indicates a relationship between arousal and performance.
• Increase in arousal=increase in the quality of physical performance.
• the quality of the performance depends on how well the skill has been learned.
• If a skill has been well learned then it is most likely to be the dominant response

The theory applied to different stages of learning.

Autonomous: for performers in this stage of learning, high arousal would be beneficial as their motor programmes have been well learnt and can be performed subconsciously. This allows the performer to then concentrate on other factors, not just performing the skill which means that a high level of arousal would be beneficial as their leant motor programme is the dominant response.

Cognitive: unlike in the autonomous stage of learning, the execution of skills isn’t as fluent and can’t be performed subconsciously; therefore a high level of arousal would result in a poor performance as they aren’t able to concentrate on other factors as well.

Arousal as a drive affecting levels of motivation:

• cognitive learners may feel demotivated in performance if they have a high level of arousal as it will affect their performance badly so it could discourage participation in a sport.

 

INVERTED U THEORY

• predicts that as arousal increases, so does the quality of performance.
• this increase only occurs up to the the optimum level.
• after this point, the performer becomes over aroused.
• arousal carries onto increase, however the quality of performance decreases as the performer isn’t able to focus on the environment and the stimuli within it.

The point of optimum arousal can depend on the level of experience that a performer has. For instance, a performer in the autonomous stage of learning would have a much higher optimum level of arousal, compared to a performer in the cognitive stage of learning. This means that an autonomous performer would be able to keep performing at a good level, without their actions being affected badly by arousal.

The type of skill being executed also determines the optimum level of arousal. When performing an open or complex skill, it is lower as these types of skill requires a lot of decision making and precision so there can’t be a lot of other factors affecting it.

CATASTROPHE THEORY OF AROUSAL

• as somatic arousal increases, so does the quality of performance.
• the quality of performance is only able to reach a maximum level is cognitive arousal is kept low. If cognitive arousal and somatic arousal is high then the level of arousal will go past the optimum level.
• When arousal goes past this level, the level of performance will drop drastically, creating a ‘catastrophe’.
• The level of performance can be regained though if the performer is able to control cognitive arousal so they are able to only focus on the current situation that they’re in.

 

 

How to motivate young people to lead balanced, healthy, active lifestyles!

FUN ACTIVITIES: practices should be enjoyable and provide fun- one of the most important factors when teaching young, cognitive learners as they need to stay interested.

SOCIAL EXPERIENCE: if young people make friends at a sports club, it encourages their participation.

ATTAINABLE TARGETS: if targets are set and achieved then it will motivate the learner as it brings a sense of achievement.

SKILLS & FITNESS: if fitness and skill level is improving then young people are more likely to continue- an outcome is being produced.

ROLE MODELS: young people are more likely to participate if they have a role model to inspire to be like.

TRANSFER OF SKILLS: skills don’t seem too difficult when they can be built on previously learned skills so the concept of learning a new skill doesn’t seem as daunting.

PROGRESSION: if participation in sports leads to a personal benefit such as improving body image, then learners are more inspired.

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: praise from coaches, parents and peers encourages participation.

All of the above mainly motivate cognitive learners as in the cognitive stage of learning, a learner needs positive feedback, a role model to actually become inspired to participate, and skills to be as simple as possible.

 

Schema & Motivation

What is the SCHEMA?

A build up of experiences which can be adapted to meet the demands of new situations as  it stores generalised movements.

Schema Theory

The schema theory states that the experiences that we have in sport is gathered from four areas. These 4 areas are categorised into two areas which are called the Recall schema and Recognition schema. 

Recall Schema: this includes the very first stage of the information processing cycle as it involves the brain asking what are the initial conditions? This could be the weather the performer is playing in or the distance the ball must be hit when it comes to a golf swing. The next stage of the recall schema is the response specifications- this is all about having the knowledge of what you need to do in the situation you are in. If we take the golf swing example, the golfer would know, using the recall schema, that if the was a lot of wind then they’d have to put more power onto the ball in order to get the ball where it needs to go.

Recognition Schema: the first part of the recognition schema is knowledge of sensory consequences. This is where the performer uses kinaeathesis to find out how the movement feels and compare it to the memory trace that they have of the movement so they are then able to gain knowledge of performance from this. Knowledge of movement outcome is the final stage of the schema theory. It includes what actually happens as a result of the movement which could be the ball not reaching the whole because of not enough power being applied against the wind, or the ball going in the hole or around it.

 

MOTIVATION

Motivation is the drive to full fill an need. It is determined by the intensity of behaviour,  which is the emotional strength of energy you feel towards the motivator,and the direction of behaviour which is the response is as a result of the emotion: in other words it is how much you’re wanting to do something for a reason and whether or not that results in you actually doing it.

There are 2 sources of motivation- Intrinsic and Extrinsic. 

Intrinsic motivation: Driven by an interest or enjoyment that is received from the task itself and is within the actual person for personal satisfaction. Examples of this can include: improving body image as a result of exercising or personal satisfaction from learning how to snowboard.

Extrinsic motivation: Doing an activity or task to gain a tangible reward so you’re driven by an external source to do something. The most common examples of this would be receiving a medal for winning a competition or getting money for getting good grades. 

AROUSAL

There are two different types of arousal, these include somatic arousal and cognitive arousal.

Somatic arousal is to do with physiological changes that happen in your body. When you are in a situation where there is pressure put upon you like taking a penalty in football, physiological changes occur like an increased blood pressure or an increased heart rate. 

Cognitive arousal brings on psychological changes. If we use the same football situation then during a penalty there way be negative thoughts going through your mind or an increased level of anxiety. 

Motivation case study:

In my sport which is squash, several things motivate me. The idea of success and being able to achieve simple targets like perfecting my swing motivates me to train for frequently. Being the weakest in my training session also motivates me as I aspire to reach the same level as players around me. Overall, I am more motivated by intrinsic influences.

Whilst doing  my sport I have felt both cognitive and somatic arousal when demonstrating a simple drop shot in a coaching session with younger children. The cognitive changes that occurred were positive thoughts going through my mind such as the praise I would receive from my coach if I was successful in the shot, but also negative thoughts of how ridiculous I would look I front of a whole group of eight year old learners. Because of the cognitive changes I was experiencing, somatic arousal also occurred in a from of increased heart rate.

 

 

Open Loop Control and Closed Loop Control.

There are two ways in which you are able to control a skill, these are called open loop control and closed loop control. As a performer, you don’t actually decide yourself which type of control you use as it is determined by the type of skill you are carrying out.

Open loop control.

This type of control is also known as level one control and explains how rapid movements are performed in sport which happens by retrieving the correct motor programme from your long term memory. Once the motor command is retrieved it is quickly sent to the working muscles which is also known as movement effectors. When using open loop control, as the movement is performed subconsciously and so fast, feedback isn’t able to be provided to then rectify the mistake made during the performance so even though you may receive kinaesthetic feedback, you are unable to act on it during the skill. Because of this absence of feedback, open loop control is only really effective when the environment is predictable as a change in environment would usually result in a change in movement which you are unable to do because of the speed of the skill. A good example of where open loop control is used is during a diving routine, if the diver feels like they are going too slow through their routine, they’re unable to speed it up in the time before they hit the water.

Open loop control in the autonomous stage of learning.

-Skills performed through open loop control are performed subconsciously just like an autonomous learner should carry out skills.

-Constant external feedback throughout isn’t needed as they rely on kinaesthetic feedback via proprioception.

Closed loop control-level 2

Closed loop control involves feedback which is termed perceptual trace. The memory trace triggers a response which leads to internal feedback that is gathered by proprioception so this allows for quick, subconscious corrections to take place for example when a gymnast is on a balance beam, they will have a memory trace of the correct position to remain balanced. A perceptual trace is created when they are carrying out the skill which then allows the perceptual trace and the memory trace to be matched together; if there is a difference between the two traces, the difference is sent to the central control system in the brain where the brain can fix the problem.

 

 

Closed loop control -level 3

Level 3 control is quite similar to the level 2 control, however the feedback loop involved in level 3 is a lot longer as the information on the performance of  a skill is relayed to the brain. The brain then modifies the movement by passing the new information back to the muscles just like level 2 control but, a concious thought is used instead.As the loop is longer, adjustments are able to be made throughout via feedback which means that this type of control is perfect for a cognitive learner since they require constant feedback in order to create the correct stimulus response bonds. An example of a skill that uses level 3 control is kicking a football, during it the performer can change the pace they put on the ball and the power when they receive feedback that is external which could be a team mate shouting ‘man on’ when an opponent is behind them. 

Feedback

What is FEEDBACK?

The information received by a performer, during and after the skill has been carried out.

There are eight types of feedback that are all essential in learning and developing skills, they include:

• Positive Feedback
• Negative Feedback
• Extrinsic Feedback
• Intrinsic Feedback
• Terminal Feedback
• Concurrent Feedback
• Knowledge of Performance
• Knowledge of Results

 

Positive Feedback

–An external type of feedback given by a coach or teacher after the performer is successful in a skill.

-Needs to highlight the points of the performance that were good and why they were so the performer is able to carry on the same technique correctly (stimulus response bonds can be strengthened). An example of this would be in squash where the coach would say that the low and hard drive was good because of the short back swing the performer had.

–Positive Feedback motivates cognitive learners.

Negative Feedback

-Given when the movement of the performer is wrong.

–It is able to be intrinsic or extrinsic.

-Should be given in a way so that the performer is able to improve their movement like in tennis the racket may need to be kept open more.

-Good for autonomous performers since they’re able to work on the mistake themselves and how to improve it since they have more knowledge from experience, where as a performer in the cognitive phase of learning may become demotivated.

Extrinsic Feedback

–Comes from another person which could be a coach, team mate or crowd.

-The performer can become too reliant on this type of feedback so kinaesthesis  doesn’t develop as well.

–Can be received by hearing feedback or seeing it like the crowd shouting or seeing a ball go into the net.

–It is very useful in the cognitive phase of learning as it can prevent the wrong stimulus response bonds being created.

Intrinsic Feedback

–To do with the feel of the movement

-Received through proprioceptors as well as kinaesthesis.

-As stimulus response bonds are developed in the autonomous phase of learning, autonomous learners can easily access this type of feedback and know if the movement is correct or not.

Terminal Feedback

-Received after the movement is completed 

– A form of extrinsic feedback.

-If it is given straight after the movement, it is more beneficial to the learner as what they did is still fresh in their mind. However, leaving a time between the completion of the movement and the feedback gives the performer time to think about what they did.

Concurrent Feedback

-Received during the performance so it can be extinsic or instrinsic.

-It is good for continious skills like cycling as a quick adjustment can be made.

-When using closed-loop control (level 3), concurrent feedback can also occur.

Knowledge of Performace

-Concerns the quality of performance.

-Can be internal as it can come from kinaesthesis.

-An external source can also provide this type of feedback by telling the performer what they did correct or incorrect so it can be used to motivate as well.

Knowledge of Results.

-Feedback about the result or the movement so is extrinsic

-It could include the coach seeing the ball go into the net in football or seeing the ball go out of court in squash by watching it.

-It can be used to improve performance as it can highlight a problem in the technique of the movement.

 

 

 

 

Reaction Time

What is REACTION TIME?

The time between the onset of the stimuli to the start of the movement. A great example of this is the sound of a gun before a 100m sprint, to the performer pushing off from the blocks.

Something called movement time adds to reaction time in order to create response time, but what do all of these mean?

Movement time is a bit more that reaction time as it is the time taken from starting the movement to when the movement is finished. This means that response time is both movement time and reaction time together as it is the time it is takes from the onset of the stimulus, to the end of the movement. If we go back to the previous example of a sprinter, response time would mean the time it takes from the gun to go off to the sprinter finishing running.  

 

Overall we would say that Reaction time + Movement time= Response time

Since everyone’s reaction time is different, there are factors that affect it which are listed below:

Age 

Gender

Limb Use

Personality

Alertness/Arousal 

Alcohol/drugs

 

Reaction time and performance

No matter what sport you participate in, reaction time will affect your performance so therefore is an important factor. If your reaction time is slower, it gives your opponent a greater advantage as they will be able to hit more rapid shots in squash for example, knowing that there is a small chance of you returning them. However if your reaction time is quicker, you would be able to return the shot more effectively and then return to the T which would put you at a greater advantage.

Response time

Just like reaction time, your response time can be determined by several factors; these include:

Mental rehearsal

Experience

Cue detection

Physical fitness

Selective attention

Warm-up

Level of arousal

Anticipation

Anticipation can be seen as one of the most important factors that affect reaction time. As a performer you are able to predict what is going to happen (SPATIAL ANTICIPATION) , and when it is going to happen (TEMPORAL ANTICIPATION). If we use any of these forms of anticipation, it allows us to speed up our reaction time as you are able to prepare your racket for example, before the shot has been played. Anticipation can obviously work in our favour, but it can also go against  us if we get anticipate wrongly which will slow down our reaction time. If you detect a stimulus which could be a large back swing that makes you anticipate that a shot to the back of the court will follow, but a second stimulus comes along, you are unable to attend to this until you have at tented to the first one- this is known as choice reaction time. Imagining choice reaction time as a bottle neck which only allows one object through at a time helps explain it.

 

As you can only attend to one stimulus at a time, you would have to wait until stimulus one is out of the way until stimulus two can enter your mind so would therefore increase your reaction time. This is known as the Psychological refractory period.

 

 

Multi Store Model of Memory

The Multi Store Model of Memory explains the flow of information which leads to a decision being made. It consists of 3 stores that are the sensory short term memory, the short term memory, and the long term memory.

Sensory Short Term Memory

• where all stimuli in the environment enters- this can be the ball, opponents, crowd and team mates.

this information is held for a very short period of time which is 0.25-1 second.

because of the small amount of time information is held for, the sensory short term memory has a large capacity.

the important stimuli is attended to and the rest is discarded, for example in a netball game, the ball would be recognised as important but the noise of the crowd wouldn’t be.

in the example given above, the sight of the ball would then be passed onto the short term memory.

Short Term Memory

• The short term memory is where the important stimuli that are recognised in the short term sensory memory travels to next.
• Information is compared to previous experiences that are stored in the long term memory.
• It has a limited capacity as less information is sent here.
• The capacity can be increased by chunking pieces of information together.
• Important information such as the catching of the ball in netball, will be rehearsed or practised. This is what passes it onto the long-term memory for the future which is also called encoding.

Long Term Memory

• information that has been well rehearsed will be held here along with motor programmes so this is why the short term memory retreats back here when looking for a comparison.
• it is thought to have a limitless capacity where information is held for a long period of time.

Information Processing

The following two models show and explain how information we gather from around us is actually processed by the brain and converted into a muscular actually.

WELFORD’s MODEL

-Display: the crowd, your team mates, your opponents, a ball being thrown, a bat being swung

-sense organs: pick out that the cricket ball is the relevant information that we need.

Perception mechanisms: detection– the performer will become aware that the ball is travelling towards them, where about their opponents or team mates are in relation to the ball and where about the batter is.. Comparison– the performer will compare this situation to any previous experiences like the one they’re in like in training for example. They’ll compare how the ball is different so is it coming from a height? Or is the power of the ball similar to what they’ve experienced? They’ll compare where their team mates are to where they were in practice and same with opponents. Recognition– they will come to recognise the situation with a comparison and then know how they are meant to catch the ball successfully.

Effector mechanisms:where the idea is made of how to place your hands in order to catch the ball and your body position when catching the ball.

Muscular system: the motor programme created by the effector mechanisms send impulse and tells the muscular system of what to do.

Response: the ball being caught.

Intrinsic feedback: the kinesthesis received of catching the ball, stimulus response bonds will tell the performer if they’ve caught it right and propioceptors will tell the performer if they have actually caught it.

Extrinsic feedback: if they performer caught the ball they’d then proceed to start the whole information processing cycle again deciding on where to throw the ball, the display would tell the performer the result by them either cheering or booing and team mates would be a source of extrinsic feedback as they would be asking for the ball to be passed to them right after the response.

 

 
 input from display: in netball your team mates running around you, the crowd on the sideline, where your opponents are or the ball being thrown

receptor systems: your eyes will see the ball coming towards you.

Perception mechanisms: detection– the performer will become aware that the ball is travelling towards them, where about their opponents or team mates are in relation to the ball. Comparison– the performer will compare this situation to any previous experiences like the one they’re in like in training for example. They’ll compare how the ball is different so is it coming from a chest pass, bounce pass or shoulder pass? they’ll compare where their team mates are to where they were in practice and same with opponents. Recognition– they will come to recognise the situation with a comparison and then know what to do which could be either run out to catch the ball or let it come to you.

Translatory mechanism: this is where the realisation happens of what is going to be done and how it is going to happen of the ball coming towards the performer.

Effector mechanisms:where the idea is made of coming forward towards the ball and creates a motor programme for it

Motor programme:the motor programme tells the muscular system to come forward in order to catch the ball

Output:this is the actual catch of the ball

Feedback:where you know if you’ve caught it correctly and a new sense of kinesthesis is created.

Practice Methods

We have a range of different pratice methods that coaches and teachers use to train performers, which ever one is used all depends on the type of skill that needs to be learnt as well as the sport that it takes place in.

Massed practice 

–Mass practise involves a learner continuously practising a skill with no breaks or rest intervals so levels of fitness must be taken into account in order to prevent fatigue. As a skill is repeated, it increases the flow of the skill because neural pathways become more developed and the number of them increase, however this repetition can lead to de motivation as learners can become bored easily which is why mass practice is aimed at athletes with them being more determined to succeed and because there are no rest intervals, there is no time for external feedback which is also used to motivate learners. The type of skill that is the most ideal for mass practice are simple skills since they are of a short duration so the onset of fatigue is delayed. Mass practice isn’t that suitable for the cognitive phase of learning as maturity levels are quite low so learners will become easily bored, making the practice less effective and since there are no intervals for external feedback, learners will have to rely on internal feedback however cognitive learners aren’t advanced enough or have enough knowledge on the skill to evaluate themselves.But mass practice is ideal for the autonomous phase of learning because this is where top and determined athletes are who tend to be more internally motivated. Another reason for this type of practice being ideal for autonomous learners is because their improvements tend to be technique based that are only small detailed targets.

A great example of this is shooting in netball as it is a simple skill with a small amount of information that needs practising.

Distributed Practice

This type of practice involves practice sessions that include intervals; these mean that the performer is able to receive external feedback which helps motivate the learner and provides confidence. Despite this, distributed practice could mean that it takes too long to actually learn the skill because of the intervals that are involved so neural pathways take longer to develop but they do allow physical and mental recovery so it can be seen as more effective than massed practice where the learning of the skill is just continuous. Distributed practice is good for learning complex skills as many decisions are required to be made so the intervals allows the performer to do this and the feedback can ensure safety for dangerous, high organisational skills. It is best suited for the cognitive phase of learning as the intervals don’t only allow feedback but guidance as well that is verbal and visual which are used in this phase of learning to develop an understanding of the skill. Learning how to swim involves distributed practice as it is a potentially dangerous skill and in the intervals the coach is ablle to give feedback on things like the movemnt of a learners legs in the front crawl.  blob:https%3A//vine.co/c97c5573-e85f-4601-a41e-5419758ac676

Fixed Practice

This practice is when a specific movement or skill is repeated in the same environment, because the environment doesn’t change, fixed practice is best suited for closed skills where the environment doesn’t effect decisions made or doesn’t change. As the environment is the same, the performer can solely focus on the tactics and technique of the skill itself. The skill that is being learnt can become overlearnt allowing it to become more automatic because of the repetitiveness, however this factor of fixed practice means that learners can become demotivated as it can become boring.

With the environment not changing , meaning the learner can focus on the skill, this type of practice is good for associative learners who are still developing their movements but have developed a good level of maturity so are able to carry out this practice without becoming bored and loosing interest. An example of this is a basketballer practicing a free throw. 

  

 Varied Practice

Varied practice is the opposite to fixed as the skill is practiced in many different environments which prepares the performer for a large range of situations they may be in that they can then adapt easily to- this means that it is the most suitable practice for open skills. As the skill is adapted to the environment, the schema   is able to develop and expand, increasing their level of preparedness.  Practice conditions must be as real as possible in order to form accurate responses to the environment so an example of this would be in football having a circle of players passing the ball to each other but then changing the number of defenders in the middle which is similar to a match. In the autonomous  phase of learning, varied practice is useful as motor skills have already been developed so it allows the learners to develop and focus on the environment.

 

Mental Practice

This is also referred to as mental rehearsal and is when the performer goes through the movement/skill in their mind without any physical movement. It strengthens neural pathways which means it is used a lot in the cognitive phase of learning where mental pictures are developed and so is the understanding of the skill. Mental practice and increases the speed of learning a skill as it is usually used alongside a form of physical practice but it isn’t as effective without it. It isn’t only goof for learning a skill, but also for controlling emotions like reducing anxiety as it focuses the learners attention onto the skill. When learning complex skills, like a gymnastics routine,mental practice is common as the learner is able to separate the skill into subroutines into their head so they can focus directly on each one so information load is reduced. blob:https%3A//vine.co/fde1a34b-920c-41c9-b8fb-f7622257e02a

 

Guidance

Whilst learning a new skill, we need different types of guidance to make the process of transmitting the information about the skill easier so we adapt the guidance to the type of skill it is as well as considering which phase of learning the learner is in.

Visual guidance

This type of guidance helps build a mental picture in the learners mind which increases their understanding of how the skill should be completed as they have the correct image in their head which could help motivate them as they have a goal to aim for. Visual guidance is typically used in the cognitive phase of learning as it emphasises relevant aspects of the skill and for the learners to be able to start learning, they need to know what they are aiming for. however because of this, the skill cant be too complex and overload cant occur as this makes it very difficult to understand so simple skills that have a lot of sub routines are ideal for visual guidance. as a coach, if you stick to visual guidance then it becomes very difficult to give feedback so it is less effective for autonomous learners as they tend to need specific detail in how to improve. it also means that the correct stimulus response bond cant be reinforced as the learner isn’t aware of what is correct; this also means that the incorrect stimulus response link can be reinforced which can encourage the wrong type of movement or lack of fluency.

Below it is clear that the coach is demonstrating the particular skill in order to create a mental image in his teams heads,therefore it is an example of visual guidance.

Verbal guidance

Verbal guidance corrects errors in performances as the coach is able to tell the learner their weaknesses and how to improve them, whoever it is difficult to tell a learner effectively as it can be confusing when described. on the other hand, this type of guidance can be used to motivate learners as extrinsic feedback is possible so when a skill is done correctly it can be reinforced with positive feedback. if a coach solely relies on visual guidance then this can lead to de motivation as the learner will become bored or find it hard to take in the information meaning this form of guidance can be seen as not very effective.

Manual guidance 

This type of guidance involves the coach physically manipulating the body of the learner to inflict the correct movement and position that the skill requires. An example of this is in squash, the coach guiding your arm, ensuring you have a low shoulder to enforce power and the correct swing with the racket face open. Manual guidance allows the learner to develop a kinaesthetic sense for the movement which then encourages correct movement in the future, however the learner could become dependant on this type of guidance so their performance without it will lack the fluency and aesthetics needed. 

Mechanical guidance

The final type of guidance is mechanical guidance which involves the use of equipment to help support the learner to shape their skill, allowing them to feel the timing aspects of the movement of the skill. This type of guidance is particularly useful in the cognitive phase of learning since it allows the learner to develop a kinaesthetic sense of movement just like with manual guidance which creates confidence in the learner. It is also useful for complex skills where timing is key in making and there is a high level of danger involved as the piece of equipment is designed to ensure safety.  An example of mechanical guidance is in learning a backwards somersault, using a harness to assist the learner.

 

In the cognitive phase of squash, manual guidance is the most useful. when a player is learning the swing of a drive, having the coach manipulate your wrist so it is at the correct angle, and the movement of your arm so the shoulder remains low and the racket face stays open, enables the player to create a kinaesthetic sense of the swing so they know exactly how it must feel. Using manual guidance in the early phase of learning means that they create the correct swing early on and they wont have to change their stimulus response which is more difficult at a later stage.

 

In the associative phase of learning in squash, visual guidance is the most effective.  the learner would have  began to eliminate mistakes however there will be a wide range of improvements needed. Because of this, visual guidance is the most ideal in order to correct movements in skills as the weaknesses wont be very specific so will be able to be shown by a coach for example, whilst completing a boast, the performer inst at the correct angle of 45 degrees from centre position, the coach will then be able to show the right place to stand at.

For the final phase of learning in squash that is the autonomous phase, verbal guidance can be seen as the most effective. This is because in the autonomous phase, the motor programme is fully established and skills are so advanced meaning any improvements needed to a skill will be very specific. For example when carrying out a drop shot when the learner is at this phase of learning, they would have the swing right and the body position but they might just need to keep a firmer wrist to ensure accuracy of the ball. this type of improvement cannot be shown through visual guidance as it is difficult to see how firm another persons wrist is, there is piece of equipment which will ensure this meaning mechanical guidance isn’t effective at all, and it is difficult to manipulate another persons wrist in order to make it firm so manual guidance also wouldn’t be very effective.

 

 

 

The Phases of Movement Skill Learning.

When learning a new skill, you as a performer don’t just suddenly move onto different stages, gradual changes are involved that are do to with the learning characteristics and the environment  as you move through stages. These gradual changes are called the phases of movement skill learning and they include the cognitive phase, the associative phase and the autonomous phase with the cognitive phase being the most basic so performers start at this stage then work their way up to the final stage which is the autonomous phase.

Cognitive phase

This is the initial phase of learning which everyone who is involved in a sport experiences, A teacher or coach will aim to help the performer develop a mental picture of what the skill looks like when performed correctly so the more complex the skill is, the longer it will take for the learner to understand the flow between movements that make the skill. Once a mental picture is developed, trial and error will be used to practice the skill as they develop a feel for it which means that only extrinsic feedback is useful at this phase and it is important the all success is rewarded with positive feedback so the learner is aware when they are doing it right. Since this is the very first phase of learning a skill, the skill will lack flow and coordination so a lot of feedback is needed for motivation and development to the next phase.   An example of this is learning how to do a serve in tennis as the coach will be able to demonstrate and explain the points to the learner. 

Associative phase

The associative phase is the second phase or learning which involves the learner associating a mental model of the skill with the actual performance so this is where motor programmes begin to form. Practice and rehearsal is used as well as trial and error so there is a gradual change in the difficulty but it comes with the advancement of the skill and as the consistency of the skill improves. This phase tends to be the longest phase and a lot of people struggle to move out of it. The photo below shows the performer being aware of his surroundings and knowledge in passing the ball but there is a mistake being made as it is thrown more towards his opponent.

Autonomous phase 

This is the final phase of learning and is the hardest to reach as it requires a lot of practice in order for the learner to be able to execute the skill with minimal concious thought which means they’re able to concentrate on things like environmental factors that could affect the outcome of the skill. The skill that is learnt will be fluent and efficient so there is less need for extrinsic feedback so performers are able to rely on kinaesthetic feedback in order to judge their performance. An example of this would be a national player performing their skill as they have moved their way through each stage and perfected the skill. blob:https%3A//vine.co/93fb7ffc-16dc-42ec-8ae3-9c4d691ca9cf